Budget Deficit & National Debt :: essays research papers

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the short- and long-term effects of current budget deficits and the nation debt. In order to do this; I first had to find out exactly what they were. I will also discuss whether I think the government should operate with a balanced budget. Budget deficit is the amount by which total government spending is more than government income during a specified period; the amount of money which the government has to raise by borrowing or currency emission in order to make up for the shortfall in tax revenues. National debt denotes the total sum of the outstanding debt obligations of a country's central government. I discovered that many people use the term somewhat more broadly to refer to the total indebtedness of all levels of government, including regional and local governments and sometimes also the indebtedness of government owned business entities such as local transit and communications systems or nationalized industries as well. The national debt represents the accumulated total of all the government budget deficits of past years, less the accumulated total of all the government budget surpluses of past years. In the United States, the national debt consists almost entirely of interest-bearing "IOU" instruments that are usually re-sellable on organized financial markets such as, for example, U.S. bonds, U.S. treasury notes, and U.S. treasury bills. These IOUs are originally purchased from the Treasury by private individuals, private corporations, insurance companies, pen sion funds and banks (both inside the United States and outside its borders), and the Treasury then uses the money it raised to bridge its spending gap when its budget is in deficit. The Treasury also sells IOUs to other Federal agencies that operate so-called trust funds -- primarily the Social Security Administration and other Federal retirement programs. The complication here is that since this is money that the government "owes to itself," it is not counted as part of the national debt in any realistic system of accounting. I find this to be really strange. Money to pay the annual interest owed to the owners of the government's debt instruments has to be provided through appropriations in every year's Federal budget. These interest payments on the national debt constitute as one of the largest spending categories in the budget. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is an estimate of the total money value of the entire final goods and services produced in a given one-year period using the factors of production located within a particular country's borders.

Harmful Effects of the Ornish Diet Essay -- Health Nutrition Diet Exer

Harmful Effects of the Ornish Diet The Ornish diet, a meal plan that emphasizes the consumption of carbohydrates over fats, is an unsafe plan despite its claims to being a safe and effective way to prevent heart disease1 – a claim only a balanced diet can make. Because the Ornish diet cuts out a large number of foods from a person’s meal, many beneficial nutrients are missing that would normally be in a balanced diet. In addition, recent studies have found that diets containing a larger than recommended amount of carbohydrates may actually increase a person’s chances of developing intestinal and breast cancers2. These findings show that despite any benefits the Ornish diet may provide to the heart, the complications of maintaining a high carbohydrate diet make it not nearly as safe as a balanced diet. Because the Ornish diet restricts participants to a strictly vegetarian meal plan, people who follow the diet often become deficient in beneficial nutrients such as vitamin B12, iron, and omega-3 fatty acids1. Vitamin B12 and iron are nutrients often found in animal products such as meat, while omega-3 fatty acids are most common fish – the foods present in a balanced diet, but absent in the Ornish diet. Deficiencies of these chemicals can often lead to conditions such as anemia, or prevent beneficial effects that are imparted by omega-3 fatty acids such as mood stabilization and improved cardiovascular health. Because the body needs iron to produce hemoglobin – a vital part in a red blood cell’s ability to transport oxygen to other cells, a lack of the substance would cause a large decrease in the effectiveness and number of red blood cells. In addition, due to vitamin B12’s regulation of blood cell production, a decreas... ...s incorrect. People on this diet often do not obtain enough of the essential vitamins and minerals that they need in order to maintain healthy bodies. Because of this, they run the risk of developing serious illnesses such as anemia. People on the Ornish diet also will not enjoy the possible benefits other nutrients such as the omega-3 fatty acids. Dieters who take in such large amounts of carbohydrates also increase their risk of developing cancers due to the elevated insulin responses their bodies put up to digest the food that they eat. In the end, a balanced diet is much safer than, and just as effective – if followed correctly – In maintaining a healthy body as the Ornish diet is. Sources 1. http://www.moscowfoodcoop.com/archive/ornish.html 2. http://www.scienceblog.com/community/article3530.html 3. http://www.bipolarchild.com/newsletters/0501.html

Carroll’s pyramid of Corporate social responsibility Essay

For the past 27 years, Carroll’s corporate social responsibility pyramid (CSR) has been widely used by top management and journals to better define and explore CSR. The different components in the pyramid help managers see the different types of obligations that society expects of businesses. It is easily understandable and simple. However, the new challenges faced by corporations in the 21st century have warranted a re-examination of Carroll’s pyramid. Carroll’s CSR PyramidCarroll’s four part CSR pyramid depicts the economic, legal, ethical and discretionary responsibilities that society expects of organizations. Carroll has integrated concepts of stakeholders and corporate citizenship into his pyramid. The base of the pyramid is economic responsibility and it gives top priority to economic performance. A business has to be profitable; maximising profits, minimizing costs, plan for the future and provide shareholders with sufficient and attractive returns. The stakeholders affected most in this group are its employees and shareholders. The legal responsibility is second in the hierarchy. Businesses are expected to pursue profits within the framework of the law. Society expects businesses to adhere to all regulations and laws, honour its contracts, warranties and guarantees. Third is ethical responsibility and it involves avoiding questionable practices. It includes all activities which have not been anticipated or legislated by society. Organizations must accept emerging values and norms of society. Businesses are to operate above mere compliance of the law. Ethical responsibilities are more difficult to deal with as they tend to be new, ill-defined or continually under public debate. At the top of the pyramid is philanthropic responsibility. It involves giving back to the community and being a good corporate citizen through donations and active participation in charities or other community welfare programs. Such responsibility is desired but may not be necessarily performed and  hence is separate from other responsibilities. (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006:22-42)Descriptive accuracyThere have been four surveys conducted on Carroll’s pyramid from 1985 to 2000. Statistical analysis has shown that the relative importance assigned to each responsibility in the pyramid reflects the empirical importance of the four categories. It also confirms that the four responsibilities are empirically interrelated but mutually exclusive. In the survey conducted by Burton, Farh and Hegarthy in 2000 on 165 Hong Kong and 157 U.S. students, they gave equal or greater value to ethical responsibility than legal responsibility. Similarly, in a 1999 survey conducted by Edmondson and Carroll on 503 black-owned businesses in U.S, ethical responsibility was ranked higher than legal responsibility. Burton, Farh & Hegarty (2000)Mean valuesEconomic orientationsLegal orientationsEthical orientationsPhilanthropic orientations-Hong Kong3.112.322.321.84-USA2.812.422.511.99Edmondson & Carroll (1999)3.162.122.192.04(Adapted from http://www.csrquest.net/default.aspx?articleID=12770&heading)These events are noteworthy. It questions whether corporate ethical responsibility has increased and if these ethical responsibilities outweigh its legal obligations. The changing social contractThe notion of CSR implies the existence of a â€Å"social contract† between a society and the corporation. (Crowther, 2004)†The social contract between business and society is to a large extent formulated from shared understandings that exist in each area in the pyramid.† (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006: 19)If society’s preferences change, there would be a redefining and thus renegotiation of the social contract. Corporations in the 21st century are experiencing significant challenges in this relationship. The increased power of business, technological advancement, and society’s heightened awareness towards moral ethical behaviour has caused a rise in the ethical responsibility in business. Increased power of CorporationsCorporations are primary agents for advancement in technology innovation, industrialism and capitalism.  (Hopkins, 2006) Multi-national companies (MNC) such as Wal-Mart have revenues which exceed the gross domestic product of nations. MNCs dominate the global marketplace. Businesses need to expand internationally to remain competitive. Globalization has come to encompass everything from â€Å"factories shifting around† to â€Å"international bodies that set the rules for the global economy.† It has resulted in the outsourcing of jobs to less-developed nations. In the United States, jobs in manufacturing are being outsourced to China and India. In a USA Today poll in 2004, 68 percent of Americans felt outsourcing of jobs was bad for the economy. (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006:293)Companies from banks to pharmaceuticals operate and compete in a global environment. When MNCs start work in another country, they must fulfil their social responsibilities in order to be perceived as legitimate. MNCs are caught in dilemmas. For example, if it were to repatriate a large part of its profits, it would be seen as depriving the host country of wealth. If it were to invest profits locally, it may be perceived to be tightening its control on the host cou ntry’s economy. Pay is another sensitive issue. MNCs seem to be exploiting labour with its low wages. However, if it were to pay more to its employees, local businesses would be hurt in the long run. (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006: 297-300)MNCs may also be assailed for not adhering to standards from their home country. Two classic ethical issues are human rights abuses in â€Å"sweatshops† and questionable marketing and plant safety practices. Plant safety issues have been on-going since the Union Carbide Bhopal crisis in 1984. More recently, Mattel found lead in its toys made in China. In both cases, companies broke no laws in its host countries. (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006: 306-311) Coating toys with lead paint is legal in China! However, it has to ensure the quality and safety of its products and employees. Society has also grown more distrustful of corporations after a spike in corporate scandals in 2001. Accounting and securities fraud have led to the demise of Enron, Arthur Andersen and WorldCom. The Sarbanes-Oxley act was created to restore public confidence in accounting and reporting practices. Society today requires not only business financial transparency but also  social and environmental transparency. This is to address a broader spectrum of stakeholders. Many multinational companies including Coca-cola, Shell and Starbucks have the adopted the triple-bottom line approach to corporate reporting. ISO 26000, launching in 2009, aims to develop an international standard in accessing social responsibility. Google was criticized by Privacy International for potentially storing data on individuals using its search engines. It went a step further in ethical behaviour by calling for new international laws to be set up to protect personal information online and is now working with UNESCO and OECD to draw up guidelines. This has shown businesses are seriously considering its ethical responsibilities to society although it is not required to do so by law. (Palmer 2007 )With the increased power that corporations are yielding, there are companies like The Body Shop who use this power and profits to raise awareness to their social causes. Other businesses have been giving large amounts to philanthropy. Japanese MNC firms such as Sony, Canon and Toyota practise kyosei. US firms gave $400 million in the few weeks after the 2004 tsunami disaster. (Hopkins, 2006) Thus corporations are setting a benchmark in society and causing a revolution of rising expectations. Future organisations must attempt to exceed these expectations. Another dimension to the increased power and scope business wields come from the privatization of government companies. It is estimated that $700 billion dollars worth of assets have been privatised worldwide (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006:344). Governments usually provide a service for society. There is conflict of interest between maximising shareholder returns and maintaining a low cost service to the public. In Singapore, SMRT, although still partly owned by the government through Temasek Holdings, was not allowed to raise its prices in 2007 because it was already making profit margins similar to that of Singapore Airlines. Technological advancementBiotechnology and information technology are new areas in corporate growth. In biotechnology, an area called bioethics has emerged. Although biotechnology holds great promise for enhancing life and health, it could have unprecedented ethical consequences. Genetic engineering could increase supply of food as it can make plants more resistant to pests or to grow in harsher conditions. However, the issue of using or eating genetically modified food has opposition. In Europe, there is a ban on bioengineered crops. In 2004, McDonalds did not want Monsanto to introduce its bug-resistant wheat as it did not want to be caught up in the biotech debate when people eat their fries. Another area of concern is in embryonic stem cell research. It holds the greatest hope for diseases like cancer, Alzheimer’ and Parkinson disease but American law denies the use of new embryos to carry out research. Scientists clone stem cells to loop around this restriction. (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006: 260-284 )Information Technology has undergone immense growth even after the dot-com bubble burst. Emails and the Internet have enabled communication without the need of a fixed place and time. It can be a fermenting ground for Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO). Individuals who were once powerless can now rally, surround and infiltrate even the most powerful organizations through the internet. For example, the Royal Dutch Shell Company changed its disposal strategy of offshore platforms after protests from Internet stakeholder swarms. (Hopkins 2006) Similarly in 2001, Nike’s global sweatshop allegations were started by an email sent out by Jonah Peretti to a few friends. Society’s increased awareness of ethical behaviourThe rising education and affluence of society have increased awareness in the ethical responsibility of firms. Most MBA and business undergraduate students now undergo some form of ethics training. Business ethics training courses are being carried out by large companies such as Lockheed Martin and Sun Microsystems. People are more aware of discrimination issues and their rights. In 2003 the Ethnic Resource Centre National Business survey showed that two-thirds of organisations provided a way to report misconduct anonymously. (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2006:243-251)The rise in social investing has also shown society’s preference for moral corporate behaviour. Socially screened portfolios in the U.S. have climbed to $2.15 trillion in 2003 and are expected to hit $3 trillion by 2011. Europe SRI market has grown $0.6 trillion from 2005 to 2007. Modification to Carroll’s CSR pyramidOne of the main weaknesses in Carroll’s pyramid is the inability to convey the tensions between the component responsibilities. To better show these organization realities it might be better to use two triangles instead. The economic responsibility surrounds and supports all the other responsibilities in the model and is the â€Å"foundation† of this model. This is because profitability is still the basis in any corporation. Corporations focus on profitability even when undertaking CSR programs. In KPMG’s International Survey of Corporate Social Responsibility (2005), 74% of respondents found economic considerations as drivers of corporate responsibility. The relative priorities of CSR should be adjusted with the rise in ethical responsibilities in corporations. The increased compliance with new standard accounting practices and laws have increased the task of legal responsibility. However, law often cannot address all new issues business face in a fast-paced global environment. Although there is an increased expectation for a corporation to give back to the community and business philanthropic responsibilities are greater than before, these are still not as large as its legal obligations. Hence, it remains the smallest out of the four components of CSR. ConclusionThe gap between society’s expectations of business ethics and that of actual business ethics has given rise to ethical problems. Globalisation has led to the broadening of the term ‘Society’. As the rate of technological change speeds up, ethical responsibilities will play a greater role in the CSR pyramid. References Bacchus, Rayman L. and Crowther D, (2004). Perspectives on Corporate Social Responsibility. London: Ashgate. Carroll’s CSR pyramid:http://www.csrquest.net/default.aspx?articleID=12770&headingSeptember 17, 2007. Carroll, Archie B. and Ann K. Buchholtz, 2006, Business and Society: Ethic and Stakeholder Management, 6th Edition, USA: South-Western, Thomson Corporation. Carroll, Archie B. (1991, July). The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: toward the moral management of organizational stakeholders balancing economic, legal and social responsibilities. Business Horizons. Hopkins, M. (2006). Corporate Social Responsibility and International Development. London: Earthscan. KPMG. (2005). KPMG Global Survey of Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting 2005: KPMG International. Revisting Carroll’s CSR Pyramid:http://www.waynevisser.com/csr_pyramid.htmSeptember 17, 2007. Palmer, M. (14, September 2007). Google to call for web privacy shake-up. The Financial Times. P21.

Theories on Children’s Cognitive Development & Case Studies Illustrating Them

Gleaning insights proposed by the earliest psychologists like Jean Piaget, socio-cultural theorists like Lev Vygotsky, radical behaviorists like B. F. Skinner and other well-known psychologists like Howard Gardner, who challenged the earlier views on children’s cognitive development, can be very important. By drawing insights and gaining a better understanding of how children’s thought processes are formed, as well as the factors that influence them, and the overall impact on children, parents, caretakers, educators, and therapists find themselves in a better position to guide and help growing kids achieve their optimum potential. In most of the theories set forth , factors like genetics and the environment or outside influences come into play. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, who formed his theories after conducting actual observations of kids, opined, â€Å"The mind of the child is not that of a miniature adult†¦ the mind develops by forming schemas that help us assimilate our experiences and that must occasionally be altered to accomplish new information. In this way, children progress from the sensorimotor simplicity of the infant to more complex stages of thinking† (Myers 1989: 85). This theory, which presupposes that children’s cognitive skills develop spontaneously, is highlighted by the different developmental stages to which children’s learning must adjust. Most teachers rely on Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory which, in essence, maintains that â€Å"the reasoning processes of children at various ages†¦ cognitive development proceeds in four genetically determined stages that always follow the same sequential order† (Child Development Theories, n. d. ). The Piagetian theory boils down to the fact that children must not be forced to absorb concepts. Instead, knowledge and learning must take place at the designated time or age of the child. Even if they undergo the same stages – infancy, early childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, and so on, individuals, of course, exhibit varying capabilities or rate of cognitive development. Piaget presupposed that children gradually find out what there is to learn about the objects and people around them through a gradual learning process. Nothing must be foisted on young minds. Instead, the young mind should be allowed to form relationships and learn through a stage-by-stage assimilation of concepts and facts. The focus is on the knowledge learned, then. Most pre-schools find the Piagetian theory quite applicable and useful. In fact, the Piagetian theory has been widely used as underlying structure or foundation for child education & care in America and other parts of the world. There are some educators or schools, though, which combine the Piagetian concept on children’s cognitive development with other theories like the socio-cultural theory set forth by Russian developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky, to let children realize their full potential. Vygotsky held that â€Å"cognitive processes are formed in the course of socio-cultural activities†¦ the individual comes into possession of a variety of cognitive processes engendered by different activities† (Kozulin, n. d. ) and with the guidance of a learned individual. â€Å"A knowledgeable person can help to add meaning to what is familiar to the child when he or she enters the child's zone of proximal development (ZPD), that place for learning located somewhere between the child's present understanding and potential understanding† (Steele 2001). Simply put, children’s cognitive skills are hastened when they come into contact with more knowledgeable elders, or more experienced, older mentors. There may be cases when even other kids of the same age but with greater intellectual capacity may help shape or form a slow-learning child’s understanding of basic concepts like music or the alphabet. The difference between the child’s own cognitive development and his potential to assimilate greater knowledge is the zone of proximal development. When schoolage kids interact and talk to and help each other learn, while also listening attentively to what their teacher says to them, they enter the zone of proximal development. In contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky laid greater emphasis in the way a child can utilize the joint approach or co-mingling with a well-informed adult in order to achieve full learning potential. Cases of teachers teaching young children to play a musical instrument like the piano may illustrate both the Piagetian concept of learning and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory. A child falling under the pre-operational stage, correlating to children in the age bracket of two to seven years, who is tinkering with the piano is still in the process of mastering symbols and will not really learn how to play the instrument well on his own. An adult’s expert guidance will jumpstart the child’s learning process. On the other hand, the piano teacher must prepare lessons that will suit the age of the child, or his developmental stage. Indeed, it can be noted that Piaget’s cognitive development theory has been used as jump-off point by his contemporaries and succeeding psychologists. One of those who challenged the Piagetian concept and maintained that a child’s cognitive ability is but one aspect of development is Howard Gardner. The latter proposed that individuals have â€Å"a number of domains of potential intellectual competence which they are in the position to develop, if they are normal and if the appropriate stimulating factors are available† (Gardner 2004: 287). Musical intelligence is one of the kinds of intelligence that Gardner said kids may cultivate. The example of a piano teacher giving a child his/her first set of piano lessons may encompass both the Piagetian concept, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, and Howard Gardner’s theory on multiple intelligence. As far as Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory is concerned, it runs counter to the Piagetian theory. Gardner believed in the vast potential each child has. He surmised that at any one instance, the well-nurtured child can be at different stages, honing his/her latent abilities – whether in spatial reasoning or body-kinesthetic or interpersonal skills, intrapersonal sensitivity, linguistic or musical inclinations. Even at a young age, children may nurture any of these multiple intelligences. A two-year-old child, for example, may be exposed to the piano playing of parents, and a couple of years later made to attend group lessons to observe, such that by the time the same child reaches the pre-teen years, he/she would have already developed a keen musical appreciation. Unlike the Piagetian method focus which tends to focus on test scores or the knowledge acquired per se, Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory focuses on forming â€Å"a strong, positive and attractive character† (Gardner 2004: 374). In the case of the child who grows up with musically inclined parents and eventually nurtures the talent , the resulting remarkable piano performance, is actually just a means to creating the child’s well-rounded character. Nonetheless, Piaget’s cognitive development concept has long been considered a universal learning theory which has found its way in numerous preschools all over the world. If most preschool classroom settings vividly illustrate Piaget’s cognitive developmental concept, particularly in the pre-operational stage, a clear-cut example of Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory is the traditional education or cultural transmission taking place in most rural communities across the world. Let us take, for instance, the case of oral narratives about ancestral heroes and events transmitted by older males to their young in Ethiopian rural communities. â€Å"Children who sit patiently and silently on the periphery of the story-telling circle gradually absorb the cultural content and verbal technique (which) lasts for hours and constitutes an integral element of everyday life. † (Kozulin, n. d. ). By relying on their elders for their socio-cultural assimilation of ideas, the children very well mirror Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory. An adult comes into the picture to impart greater learning at a quicker pace than if the children were to come across the same body of knowledge on their own. The traditional oral transmission of culture such as that perpetuated in the Ethiopian village, however, is no longer practiced in most other societies. Written records have supplanted the oral tradition. In his book, â€Å"Frames of Mind – The Theory of Multiple Intelligences,† Gardner cited numerous examples of people and situations affecting children’s cognitive learning skills. One of these is the structured method inspired by Japanese violinist Shinichi Suzuki to teach kids to learn music. Hinged on the basic principle that kids have an innate ability which â€Å"can be developed and enhanced through a nurturing environment† (The Suzuki Method 2005), the Suzuki Method lays emphasis on other intervening factors that may affect how young students learn music or instrument playing. These factors include starting lessons at an early age; recognizing just how important listening to music is; getting a first-hand grasp in learning how to play an instrument even before learning how to read; parental participation; well-trained teachers who instill quality teaching standard; realizing the importance of communicating and socially interacting with other children (The Suzuki Method 2005). Gardner also cited the method of imparting learning in traditional African bush society, wherein â€Å"the youngsters are divided into groups according to ages and aptitudes and receive instruction in the assorted lore of native life†¦particular stress on the historical background of the population as a means of stimulating group consciousness† (Gardner 2004: 343) is made. Gardner made the distinction of such ritualistic methods from more scientific ways of obtaining knowledge. â€Å"With formal schools, we behold a transition from tacit knowledge to explicit forms of knowledge† (Gardner 2004: 345). Such sensitivity to spoken knowledge displayed by native communities, when melded with modern methods of learning and technical requirements, may comprise what Gardner refers to as linguistic intelligence. When kids hailing from their native communities are absorbed in mainstream society, they are accorded the chance to fully develop this linguistic intelligence. Such language development also reflects or applies Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, which highlights the important role of language and social context in children’s cognitive processes. Language, in the case of African communities with an oral tradition of teaching kids, is used primarily to retain key concepts in the minds/memory of the youngsters. In such scenarios, children obtain greater understanding of their roots, including their ancestors, traditions, and culture as a whole, and piece together a logical picture in their minds by internalizing the various words and concepts articulated by knowledgeable elders. Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory likewise finds itself applied in contemporary society. As an alternative to the Piagetian concept as well as to the behaviorist schools of thought which had theorists like B. F. Skinner postulating that mental processes or learning occurred as a consequence of the individual’s response to, or interaction with, the environment†¦ and with reinforcement and punishment playing a crucial part in molding behavior (Child development theories, n. d. ), Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory articulated that learning is more of â€Å"a shared/joint process in a responsive social context† (Psychology applied, n. . ). Vygotsky debunked the view that learning depends or follows a child’s stage of development or maturation. Vygotsky veered away from the â€Å"biologically-based understanding of human behavior† or from the rewards and punishment concept set forth by behaviorists as main determinants of children’s thinking & behavior. Instead, he placed emphasis on the impact of social/cultural forces on human c ognitive processes and activity. He discovered the connecting links between socio-cultural processes taking place in society, and mental processes taking place in the individual† (Psychology applied, n. d. ). A modern example that applies in part Vgotsky’s learning theory of having a knowledgeable adult supervise the learning process and B. F. Skinner’s behaviorist approach is a structured skills-based tutoring service that offers individualized instruction to slow or advanced learners wishing to strengthen their foundation in key subjects like math, reading, and writing. Tutoring Club, one such company, has in its employ well-schooled and well-trained tutors who guide enrolled students who need to obtain better understanding of concepts in certain academic areas. The students work on modules of exercises designed to sharpen their cognitive skills, and every time they meet the desired output, an incentive (reward) comes in the form of a merchandise that they may get from a mini store inside the learning center, traded for chips which students accumulate for each module they complete. Another case in point is a modern-day Mathematics teacher who is instilling basic concepts to her students. An investigative research that zeroed in on a teacher who adopted the Vygotskian socio-cultural perspective in teaching Mathematics to her students showed how helpful it can be to encourage students to share their thoughts, ideas and assumptions with their peers under the teacher’s knowledgeable guidance and prodding. As the teacher opined, â€Å"Sharing clarifies their thinking. It lets them verbalize. nstead of just having it in their minds†¦ students become aware of how they think so that when they verbalized their thinking processes, she (the teacher) could help them with any difficulties they had† (Steele 2001). Based on the Vygotskian theory, language and communication – whether in remote rural communities or the contemporary setting, utilizes language and communication as essential tools to stimulate children’s cognitive development. The approach, of course, will vary depending on the physical state of each child. A different approach is taken for children with defects or physical impairment. Vygotsky may also be credited with tailorfitting the teaching method to the particular needs — as well as dysfunctions – of children. â€Å"Within his general theory of child development, (Vygotsky) created a comprehensive and practice-oriented paradigm of educating children with special needs (and) introduced the notion of `primary’ defects, `secondary’ defects, and their interactions in the field of psychopathology and different disabilities† (Psychology Applied, n. . ). Vygotsky believed that because cognitive development is hinged largely on stimulation of the senses, the physically and mentally impaired child is inhibited from obtaining knowledge at a generally accepted rate. More than the physical handicap of the special child, though, it is the â€Å"social consequences† (Psychology Applied, n. d) arising from that child’s impairment which must be gi ven focus. Cognitive developmental theories may be applied beyond the classroom, or in many other areas of children’s learning and lives. Various other factors that come into play which influence cognitive processes, like interactive media, also cannot be discounted. The condition of the child is likewise important in determining the right approach to inculcate learning. In any case, early cognitive developmental interventions, finetuned by succeeding theorists, serve not just to enhance academic outcomes but help shape the well-rounded personalities of today’s kids. Nowadays, the sound body of knowledge aimed at the workings of children’s mind continues to evolve and grow. In the end, it is up to parents, schools and other learning institutes, to determine which ones are truly suitable and will contribute in a healthy manner to the development of children’s cognitive skills. It can be seen that the pioneering works of such psychologists as Jean Piaget – who emphasized biologically-based or natural development of children’s cognitive skills — certainly provided good foundation or strong footing for succeeding child development theories to come out with improved concepts. Given the numerous cognitive development theories set forth and utilized for classroom teaching and/or child care, and the distinct differences and similarities in the main points of contention of the theorists laid out for people to grasp, which have undergone further study and enhancements and complemented by other theories throughout the years, parents and educators have been able to devise new and improved methods of enhancing children’s cognitive skills and potential.

Computer Ethic and Privacy

Computers and the world of information technology are advancing quickly in this generation. Moor in his 1985 article â€Å"What is Computer Ethics? † stated that, â€Å"Computers provide us with new capabilities and these in turn give us new choices for action†. Hence, arguments about privacy and ethics in computer technology arise. With the birth on computers there â€Å"was concern right away that computers would be used inappropriately to the detriment of society†(Herold, 2006). I believe that the good is outweighing the bad when it comes to computers.I also believe there is a degree of user Alana Northrop states in her paper that, â€Å"Computerized search systems have been one of the most widely deployed management science technologies in the fight against crime†(1993). Police officers use computers in their cars now. The computers gives them access to information on citizens and also has the ability to give them directions to where they want to go. E verybody benefits from the use of GPS. At some point everyone has used Google Maps and perhaps even Google Street View to find an address.But is Street View seen as an invasion of privacy? Or is it just another stride in computer and information advancement? I believe the way people use computers and information play a big role in the social benefits. People and corporations alike use computers and information as a tool for more information or for leverage. What users do not often understand is that â€Å"they also have a responsibility to consider the ramifications of their actions and to behave accordingly†(Herold, 2006).Software piracy and plagiarism are examples of what happens when computer users decide to ignore ethics and use the computer and information for their own personal gains and/or pleasure. Hackers believe that it’s acceptable to do anything with a computer as long as the purpose is to learn. This utilitarian way of thinking, that anything is ok as long as it is for the greater good (Beauchamp, Bowie, Arnold, 2009), contributes to harming the social good. Hacking, piracy, plagiarism; these are the things happen because of how a person decided to use information.The information in and of itself is not harming the social good. That being said; the benefits of computers and the information they gather and store will always outweigh the harming of the social good. If you look at how far mankind has come with the help of computers and information technology, you will find evidence of this. Hospital records and now easier to access and store. Credit reports no longer takes weeks to obtain. We could go on and on with examples of how computers benefit society. I’m not sure that there is a way to effectively embrace computers while preventing the harm of the social good.With good things come the bad. We just need to accept that. Laws and regulations are in place to help minimize damage to the social good but even those have their li mits. It really leans heavily on the moral character of the people that live in today’s world. Yes, without computers we wouldn’t have these issues. But we do have them and they mostly make our lives easier and simpler and I would say the trade-off is fair. References: Beauchamp, T. L. , Bowie, N. , & Arnold, D. (2009). Ethical Theory and Business, (8th ed. ).Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Herold, R. (2006). Introduction to computer ethics. Retrieved from http://www. infosectoday. com/Articles/Intro_Computer_Ethics. htm Moor, J. (1985). What is computer ethics?. Metaphilosophy, 16(4), 266. Northrup, A. (1993). Police use of computers. Informally published manuscript, Center for Research on Information Technology and Organizations, University of California- Irvine, Irvine, California. , Available from Escholarship. org. (qt71x0h7hb)Retrieved from http://escholarship. org/uc/item/71x0h7hb

Analysis of Anselm’s Ontological Argument Essay

This premise does not state that God’s strengths as this argument is to prove his existence, not whether or not God is all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good. The second premise means this greatest possible being is either an imaginary being that one has thought of or, a being that we not only is not only thought of but also exists. The third premise and its sub premises states because existing in reality is greater than existing in thought, then the God we have thought of exists in reality or there must be a greater, or more perfect, being that does exist and that being is God. This leads to the conclusion, if you accept the premises then you accept the existence of the greatest being possible, God. This concept of God’s existence is also led with the idea that God is a necessary being, a being that is not dependent of something greater in order to exist. If God relied on another being, like how a children rely on parents to conceive them, then this being called God is not God because it would be imperfect. Therefore, there must be another to call God that meets all the requirements for perfection. One of the first popular objections was created by Gaunilo of Marmoutiers. The premise and conclusion to Gaunilo’s argument is identical to Anselm’s argument except with the replacement of the word â€Å"God† with â€Å"the Lost island† and the word â€Å"being† with â€Å"island†. As simple as that, though Gaunilo’s argument is completely absurd, Gaunilo’s reductio ad absurdum also proves to be as deductively valid as Anselm’s argument. However, this â€Å"Lost Island† could in no way exist. The absurdity and validity of â€Å"the lost island† quickly brought up questions as to how Anselm’s Argument cannot be absurd. Anselm’s argument was not proven invalid until Immanuel Kant, a german philosopher during the 18th century, proposed an objection that would be the decisive blow to the Ontological argument (Immanuel Kant. Wiki). Kant’s objection is how existence is not a predicate (Mike, screen 25). A predicate is used to describe something the subject (this being God in Anselm’s Argument) is doing. In Aselm’s Argument, Anselm premise rely on that being conceived and existing in reality is something that describes God. This rationality does not follow because to exist or conceive does not describe the subject, it only tells us whether it exist or not. Much like how fictional characters do not exist, describing cartoon for example would tell us details of what this cartoon looks like, what its habits are and common antics it goes through, but not whether it exists or not. The question of existence must fall in a separate argument that does not define the character. As there are Arguments to prove God, there are debatable arguments to disprove the God. The First version of â€Å"The Argument from Evil† goes as follow: 1. If God were to exist, then that being would be all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good. 2. If an all-PKG existed, then there would be no evil. . There is evil. [Conclusion] Hence, there is no God (Sober, 109) The first premise is the definition of what God would be if he were to exist. That is a being that has the power to do anything, had knowledge of everything throughout the span of time and is in all ways good. The second premise is created with the first premise in mind. To expand on the second premise i t states, if God were all-powerful he could stop any form of evil from happening, if he is all knowing then he has knowledge of when evil will occur and if he is all-good then God would stop all evil from happening. If god cannot stop all evil from happening then the definition of God must be incorrect. He then must not be powerful enough to stop all evil, and/or he doesn’t know when evil until it has already occurred and/or good is not all good in that God does not wish to stop all evils. The third premise is stating the fact that there is evil in the world. The conclusion derived since that there is evil, then is what may be defined as God must be lacking in one or two of his qualities and therefore God, by definition, does not exist at all. In order for God to be compatible with evil, God must only allow the evils that would, in turn, lead to a greater amount of good and must take the route that leads to the least amount of evil to gain the greatest amount of good. The soul building defense was created in mind that evil and God co-exist in our world. The defense is that without any evil in the world, our souls would not nurture, or, understand the concept of evil. This defense does not hold true because there has been many evils in the world that seem unacceptable, even though it may have been for the purpose of soul building. God, and all-good being, would then only allow the evils that are essential in soul-building. This would only mean that evil that man commits against man. The reason for this is because anything that happens in nature exceeds soul-building essentials. Another defense is God having given us free will, humans ultimately are the causes of this evil. That is true but the common objection to this is that human do more than enough evil to ourselves, it is going too far to have God throw tornados, volcanic eruptions, and hurricanes at us too. At what point do human have such control over nature. The last defense is that God simply works in mysterious ways. Who can explain why natural events take so many lives and injure many others or why some children have to go through great deals of suffering and live through it? It is God’s way and ultimately, no matter how incomprehensible the evil is, it is for the greater good. Certainly the question to God’s existence has been pondered upon by philosophers for over a very long period of time with no progress as whether God exists or not. The ontological argument created by Anselm withstood a great deal of criticism until it was disproved by Kant over 600 years after the fact.

Anselms Ontological Argument

In the second chapter of Anselm 's Proslogian, Anselm later offered something described as his ontological argument. This believes that he is very powerful Psalm 14: 1 Fool He his heart, No God. Anselm's assertions are as follows: God is unimaginable If someone understands something, this means that in someone's understanding, bigger ones can not be imagined If someone understands, Someone can imagine without big things exists in someone's understanding. In Anselm 's ontological argument, he is trying to prove the existence of God, but his argument is purely based on a discussion of thought and does not require a moral entity to challenge the truth of emotion. Ontology is related to existence or something. Anselm 's ontological debate is considered to be omnipotent and kind, regarded as existence and whether it is God's wealth, and omnipotent. This argument is a transcendental argument. Instead of relying on experimental knowledge to prove the existence of God it means that God must exist logically or that the absence of God is illogical. Ontology argument is a transcendental argument. These arguments are trying to prove the existence of God from the meaning of the word God. Anselm of Canterbury introduced an ontological argument to his work Proslogion. The classic argument of Anselm is based on two principles, the most important of which are the aforementioned St. Ansell and Renà © Descartes of Cantabelli. If he does not exist, you can still think of a big existence (it is like saying that God does not exist except this existence). The presence must still be one of the attributes of God, as it can still understand the larger God (God that exists) by removing it. The most common problem of this discussion is that it only enumerates its existence in God's attributes, not it. This argument seems to indicate that the facts that can be imagined should be true. Antism 's ontological argument is intended to be the first testimony of the existence of God. Anselm star ts with the premise that it does not rely on experience and draws the conclusion of the existence of God in a purely logical way. His purpose was to refute the fool who said in God that there is no God (Psalm 14: 1). This fool has two important features. The following is an attempt to clarify the discussion presented in Chapter 2 of Proslogium. The discussion in Chapter 3 is quite different and is more interesting in some ways. After completing this page, you may try to give a similar gloss with the second parameter. This is not easy. This argument is very complicated. But you may do this in a useful campaign